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Key Figures
The Muslim's conquest of Iberia
transformed Medieval Spain into a land, where members of
three faiths could interact with each other like never
before. Umayyad Córdoba attracted scholars, scientists,
merchants, and poets of all ethnic and religious
backgrounds.
Amid political fragmentation, Muslims, Christians, and Jews
collaborated, exchanged, and debated ideas. Their efforts
laid the cultural groundwork for the emergence of a common
Andalusi identity throughout the land.
Here are some of the period's most influential individuals.
Their contributions led to the creation of Al-Andalus'
unprecedented cosmopolitan nature.
[A
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Abbas
ibn Firnas (810-887) - Muslim
A
mathematician and astronomer at the Umayyad court in
Córdoba. He prepared local astronomical tables, managed an
observatory, and designed a water clock. He made one of the
earliest attempts at man-made flight, a thousand years
before the Wright Brothers. In 875, he built a glider and
launched himself from a tower, remaining aloft for some
time, to the astonishment of Córdoba’s citizens.
Abd al-Rahman I (731-circa 788) - Muslim
Responsible for establishing an independent Umayyad dynasty
(r. 756-88) in Al-Andalus. Thus, he earned the nickname,
“al-Dakhil” (the founder). He made this bold move after the
Abbasids took over the caliphate in the east in 750. He fled
from Syria to his mother’s Amazigh (Berber) homeland in North Africa,
and then took control in Córdoba with the support of his
army. He initiated construction on the Great Mosque of
Córdoba, created a stable government, and built a palace
called Rusafa. There, he emulated the glories of his Syrian
ancestors. His line finally died out in 1036.
Abd al-Rahman III (912-961) - Muslim
Energetic and successful Umayyad ruler. His mother was a Navarrese princess. In 929, he declared
himself as caliph with the throne name, al-Nasir li
din-Allah (“Victorious in Upholding God’s Faith”). He, thus,
reclaimed the title his ancestors in Syria had lost to the
Abbasids in 750. With new-found prestige, he developed a
monumental victory city and palace near Córdoba called Madinat al-Zahra. It is named after his favorite concubine.
 Abu
al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (936-1013) - Muslim
Surgeon of Córdoba, who is credited with developing many
surgical techniques and instruments. His name is Latinized
as Abulcasis. He is also known for the great medical
encyclopedia, al-Tasrif. It was translated into Latin.
Physicians in the West studied it widely.
Abu Ishaq al-Zarqali (1028-1087) - Muslim
A
leading Arab mathematician and astronomer based in Toledo.
He contributed to the Tables of Toledo. Gerard of Cremona
later rendered the work into Latin. Al-Zarqali also
corrected Ptolemy's geographical data, such as the length of
the Mediterranean Sea. He excelled at constructing precision
astronomical instruments. He invented a new, flat astrolabe,
called al-safiha (asaphea in Latin). It could be used at any
latitude. He also built a water clock. It was capable of
determining the hours of the day and night, and indicating
the days of the lunar months. In Latin, it is known as
Arzachel.
Adelard of Bath (1075-1160) -
Christian
An Englishman sometimes
called the first European scientist. He wrote about
scientific advances in a manner that made Muslim sciences
popular in western Europe. He studied and taught as one of
the first European intellectuals outside the Church, working
in France and the Mediterranean region. He introduced
Euclidean mathematics and advances in astronomy from Arabic
sources. He wrote technical treatises but also explored the
philosophical questions of faith vs. knowledge. These issues
were important in making the new knowledge acceptable in a
Christian milieu.
Alfonso VI (1040-1109) -
Christian
King of Castile and Len. He
brought the Cistercian Order into Spain and established them
in Sahagun. He chose a French Cistercian, Bernard, as the
first Archbishop of Toledo after the reconquest on May 25,
1085. He protected the Muslims among his subjects and struck
coins with inscriptions in Arabic letters.
 Alfonso
VIII (1155-1214)- Christian
He led the
coalition of Christian princes and foreign crusaders in the
battle of the Navas de Tolosa in 1212. The unified forces
broke the power of the Almohads. His reign saw the
domination of Castile over Len. Through his alliance with
Aragon, he drew close the two spheres of Christian Iberia.
 Alfonso
X (1221-1284) - Christian
The Spanish
king of Castile and Len from 1252–1284. Known as Alfonso
the Wise (or "Learned"), or el Sabio, he was the son and successor of Ferdinand
III. He continued the conquests of Muslim territories in Al-Andalus,
and took the city of Cá¡diz in 1262. His mother, Beatriz, was
daughter of German King Philip of Swabia. He aspired to
become Holy Roman Emperor and engaged in continental royal
maneuverings to that end. Papal opposition and Spanish
rejection ended that ambition.
His reign saw rebellions of both Christian nobles and Muslim
subjects. He sought allies in an effort to quell these
disturbances. Civil wars over succession continued; however,
so did the conquests of Muslim territory. His son, Sancho
IV, took over after his rule ended.
Alfonso demonstrated great respect for Toledo's culture and
libraries. He supported the transfer of knowledge and the
arts: Under his patronage, scholars translated Arabic and
Hebrew works into Castilian and Latin. He also patronized a
collection of legal guides, including the Siete Partidas. What's more, he wrote a book of devotional poetry, Las Cá¡ntigas de Santa Maráa, which reveals Christian attitudes to Muslims and Jews, as well as books on chess and other games.
His interest in astronomy led to the compilation of the Alfonsine tables. It also fostered the translation and study
of many scientific and historical works. These works were
preserved and disseminated in northern Europe. There, they
contributed to the development of learning in universities
and medical colleges.
Ali ibn Hazm (994-1064)
- Muslim
The son of an affluent
minister at the Umayyad court in Córdoba. Thus, he was
educated in the Qur'an and in poetry by women of the harem.
After the Umayyads' decline, he became an independent
scholar. He wrote over 400 books in many different fields.
He was renowned for having a sharp tongue when challenged to
debate. He adopted the literalist approach of the Zahiri
school of law.
Despite his intellectual prominence, several of his books
were burnt. He was forced to leave Córdoba for the
countryside, where he had a small following. His most famous
works include a book on legal interpretation, a review of
numerous religious sects, and a manual on morals and
behavior. He also authored Tawq al-Hamamah ("The Dove's
Necklace"), a compilation of observations, anecdotes and
poems about love.
Al-Mansur (712-775) -
Muslim
An ambitious palace official in
Córdoba. He is also known as Muhammad ibn Abi Amir. In 976,
he secured the accession of the 12-year-old Umayyad prince,
Hisham, to the throne. He consolidated his power as chief
wazir by isolating the young caliph from the outside world
at the Madinat al-Zahra palace. Following a victory in a
frontier battle, he assumed the title of al-Mansur Billah (“Victorious by the Grace of God”). Over several decades, he
conducted nearly 60 military campaigns against the northern
Christian states. He sacked Barcelona in 985 and Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in 997. He became known in Christian
Europe as the feared Almanzor.
Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad (1091) - Muslim
Ruler of Seville upon the caliphate's collapse in Córdoba.
He was Ibn Abbad's grandfather. Al-Mu'tamid served as a
judge (qadi) in Seville before becoming the third and last
of the Abbadid rulers of Seville. He gained renown as a
poet-king. Styling himself as ruler of the crown of taifa
states, Al-Mu'tamid sought to reproduce the famed splendor
of Madinat al-Zahra in his court at the Alcazar. He
patronized scholars, poets, and artisans, and held lively
salons that continued to propagate high Andalusian culture.
However, his rivalries with other petty kings exhausted his
military strength and financial resources. Ultimately, it
forced him to pay tribute to Alfonso VI of Castile and tax
his subjects heavily. Ibn Abbad turned for assistance to
Yusuf ibn Tashufin, a Amazigh (Berber) and the Almoravid ruler of
North Africa. The Berbers' arrival restored unity to Al-Andalus.
But, by that time, Al-Mu'tamid was exiled and impoverished.
 Boabdil
(1459-1528) - Muslim
Last Muslim ruler of Granada. His name is a distortion of “Abu Abdullah” Muhammad
XII. He was the son of the previous ruler, Muley Abul
Hassan. He took over in 1482 from his exiled father.
Following military misadventures, he consented to govern
Granada as a tributary kingdom under Ferdinand and Isabella.
In 1489, Ferdinand and Isabella called upon him to surrender the city,
after which it was placed under siege. In 1492, Granada surrendered and turned
the city over to the Spanish rulers. He was offered an estate, but chose exile
in North Africa about a year later. According to legend, as he left Granada, he
looked back and wept at losing the city, at a place called “the
last sigh of the Moor.”
Charles Martel
(686-741) - Christian
The Franks' Mayor of the Palace and Duke, nicknamed “The Hammer.” His army
routed a small Muslim contingent at the Battle of Tours in
732-33. Muslim rule in Europe had nearly reached its
geographic limit. Yet, the battle is often viewed incorrectly as a
decisive action saving Europe from becoming part of the fold
of Islam.
Charles V (1500-1558) -
Christian
Charles V was ruler of the
Burgundian territories, King of Spain, King of Naples and
Sicily, Archduke of Austria, a King of German territory, and
Holy Roman Emperor. As a Habsburg monarch, his territories
were spread across much of Europe.
In Spain, he was called Carlos V but was officially Charles
I of Spain. He was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella,
and son of Phillip of Flanders and Joanna the Mad of Castile. He ruled
alongside them during his youth. He also was related to
other royal houses in Europe, including Emperor Maximilian I
Catherine of Aragon, first wife of Henry VIII, and others.
He was among the first imperial monarchs of Europe during
the Age of Exploration. He presided over the earliest
stirrings of the Reformation in Europe. As such, he
attempted to repress Protestants. He did so by supporting
the Catholic Church through political and military
maneuvering, as well as Inquistion.
He engaged in many entanglements, such as war with the
Ottomans, the French and the Dutch Protestants. What's more,
his appointment of numerous Flemish officials to his Spanish
court angered his subjects.
Under Charles V, the conquests of Cortes and Pizarro over
the Aztecs and Incas took place under his reign. These
conquests added huge territories and wealth in precious
metals. He is said to have introduced slavery to the New
World.
Christopher Columbus (circa
1451-1506) - Christian
 Genoese admiral
who is credited with making the first recorded European
trans-Atlantic crossing of the 15th century to the Americas,
in 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain equipped Colombus'
voyage.
During the first crossing, he landed on the island of
Hispaniola. He only reached the mainland on his third voyage
of four, in 1498.
The discovery of the Americas -- attributed to Columbus even
though he died believing he had reached Asia -- was the
beginning of European colonization of the New World. It
resulted in contact with indigenous Americans. This contact
resulted in a precipitous decline of their population
through lack of immunity to European diseases, such as
smallpox.
Because of this catastrophic effect on indigenous American
society, the period before 1492 is known as Pre-Columbian.
Columbus died in 1506, after several reversals of fortune
and illness near his life's end.
Count
Julian (flourished 711) - Christian
A semi-legendary figure, the Byzantine governor of Ceuta, who controlled the
North African coast town. He allied with the Amazigh (Berber) general Tariq
ibn Ziyad. He possibly supplied boats to cross the
Mediterranean, in order to remove the Visigoths from power.
Ferdinand II (1452-1516) - Christian
The Catholic king of Aragon, Castile, Sicily, Naples,
Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre. He was also Count of
Barcelona. Ferdinand was the son of John II of Aragon. He
married Princess Isabella of Castile in 1469. Later, he took
the title of Ferdinand V of Castile, when Isabella became
Queen of Castile.
Ferdinand took the throne of Aragon after his father’s death
in 1479. Isabella and Ferdinand's joint lands unified much
of what is now Spain. The two monarchs ruled in partnership, each ruling their own territories independently.
In 1492, during their first decades, they achieved the
Kingdom of Granada's conquest. They also forced the
expulsion of the Jews from both Castile and Aragon. What's
more, they funded Christopher Columbus’ voyage to the
Americas.
To avoid conflict in the exploration of new territories,
they signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. They took
this step to theoretically split the world between the
rulers of Portugal and Castile along a line of longitude in
the Atlantic Ocean.
After Isabella's death, her kingdom went to their daughter
Joanna. Ferdinand took over the regency of Castile. He ruled
through Francisco Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros.
Ferdinand spent much of his reign dealing with the extensive
European territories, as well as succession struggles. These
struggles enabled his grandson and successor, Charles V, to
become one the most powerful rulers on the continent of
Europe.
When Ferdinand died in 1516, Spain was a world power.
Charles V inherited the Spanish lands of his maternal
grandparents. He also inherited the Habsburg and Burgundian
lands of his paternal family. Charles held Aragon and shared
the Castilian crown with his insane mother Joanna, unifying
the Spain under one rule.
Gerard of
Cremona (circa 1114-1187) - Christian
One of the most important translators of Arabic works during
the 12th century. At age 30, he left for Toledo after
learning of the wisdom being shared there. He translated
over 70 essential works in science into Latin. By doing so,
he introduced advancements from the Arabic and Greek
intellectual traditions to European thinkers.
His translations laid the groundwork for scholars such as
Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and
Copernicus. Gerard and John of Seville -- a converted Jew --
established schools of translators, scribes, assistants, and
librarians.
Hakam II (914-976) - Muslim
A king of the Umayyad dynasty. He continued his father Abd
al-Rahman III's policies in order to secure the Umayyad
caliphate. He negotiated peace with northern Iberia's
Christian kingdoms. He also further developed agriculture
through construction of new irrigation works.
He amassed a vast library with over 400,000 books from all
parts of the Muslim world. He gathered at his court the
brightest Jewish, Christian, and Muslim minds. He also
patronized translations of Greek works.
What's more, he oversaw the expansion of the Great Mosque of
Córdoba. This move reflected the increased conversion to
Islam taking place at the time. His young son, Hisham II,
succeeded him. Wazir Al-Mansur coddled Hisham II and took
control of the government.
Hasdai ibn
Shaprut (circa 915-990) - Jewish
 A Jewish scholar who acquired a thorough knowledge of
Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin in his youth through his father’s
guidance. Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Rahman III initially
appointed him physician. But later, he played a significant
role in virtually all affairs of state, from diplomacy, to
trade and taxation, to scholarship.
He served as the caliph™s
envoy to Pamplona and Navarre. He allowed Abd al-Rahman to reassert
control over these Christian kingdoms by curing the deposed king of
Len, Sancho the Fat (a relative of the Caliph), allowing him to return
to power.
In 949, he translated the Materia Medica into Arabic
with the aid of a learned Greek monk. This work served as a
magnificent codex of Dioscorides’ work on botany. An embassy
from Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII brought the work to
Córdoba as a gift.
John of Gorze, the ambassador for Otto I of Germany,
remarked that he had never met a man of such subtle
intellect as ibn Shaprut. Notably, ibn Shaprut sent a letter
to the Byzantine Empress, Helena, pleading for religious
liberty to be granted to the Jews of that empire and sent envoys, without success, to the Jewish Kingdom of the Khazars.
Hroswitha (circa 932-circa 1002) - Christian
A noblewoman and Benedictine nun from a Saxon family of
Gandersheim. She distinguished herself as a major poet and
composer of dramatic works in Latin. She was well-versed in
the Church fathers, as well as Classical writings, which
included Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Terence, among others. Her
works form part of the Ottonian Renaissance. She traveled to
Córdoba during the height of its splendor in the mid-10th
century. She was captivated by the bustling city’s running
water, paved streets, palaces, and industries, characterizing shining Córdoba as
the “ornament of the
world,” a description that continues to resonate with
visitors today.
Ibn Abd Rabbihi (860-940)
- Muslim
A renowned poet in Córdoba. He
was the descendant from a former slave of the Umayyad ruler
Hisham I. He enjoyed a great reputation for learning and
eloquence. His most famous work is al-Iqd al-Farid (The
Precious Necklace). It is an anthology of the best
selections of original, sophisticated, and pleasing Arabic
prose, satire, and essays. Each of its 25 sections is named
after a precious gem. Such naming illustrates the tendency
of Arabic authors to apply witty and creative names to their
works.
Ibn Bajja (circa 1095-circa 1138)
- Muslim
Philosopher of 12th century
Al-Andalus. His name was Latinized as Avempace. He also
served as wazir for Almoravid rulers, including Abu Bakr ibn
Ibrahim for a short time and Abu Bakr Yusuf ibn Tashufin for
20 years.
Historian Ibn Khaldun recognized Ibn Bajja as one of the
leading Muslim philosophers, among Averroes (Ibn Rushd),
Avecinna (Ibn Sina), and al-Farabi. Ibn Bajja was also known
as a poet, musician, and composer of songs.
Ibn Bajja’s writing exists in Arabic and in Hebrew
translation. Latin translations of Averroes quote Ibn Bajja,
as well. He is known for his writings on the pine union of
the soul, from the stage of spiritual purification to Active
Intellect. Ibn Bajja also studied astronomy, mathematics,
and botany.
Isabella (1451-1504) -
Christian
She was Queen regnant of
Castile and Leon. She became Queen of Castile in 1474, after her allies
forced her brother Enrique IV to de-legitimize his daughter and
rightful heir, Juana. In 1469, she married Ferdinand, heir to the
throne of Aragon, against the wishes of her brother and the nobility.
 She and her husband, Ferdinand II of Aragon, laid the
foundation for the political unification of Spain under
their grandson, Carlos I of Spain (Charles V, Holy Roman
Emperor). Her paternal grandparents were King Henry III of
Castile and Katherine of Lancaster, half sister to Henry IV
of England.
Her maternal grandparents were Prince John of Portugal, brother of Henry the
Navigator. She was the daughter of King John II of Castile and Queen Isabella of
Portugal. Among her five children with Ferdinand was Catherine of Aragon, wife
of Henry VIII, and mother of Mary, Queen of Scots (“Bloody
Mary").
Isabella and Ferdinand established an effective co-regency
under equal terms. They accomplished many goals, which
included establishing a legal basis for a united Spain;
completing the Reconquista with the defeat of Granada;
sponsoring Columbus’ voyage; and consolidating rule over
Spanish possessions in the New World. They also established
Catholicism as the dominant force in Spain, with the
expulsion and forced conversion of many Jews and Muslims.
Isa de Jabir (flourished in 1455) - Muslim
Religious leader (alfaqui) from Segovia. He was a
mudejar, or Muslim living under Christian rule. Juan de
Segovia invited him to Ayton in the Savoy, where he
translated the Qur'an into Castilian language. Juan de
Segovia then translated the Castilian version into Latin. In
the 14th century, the Leyes de Moros (Law for the Moors) were composed
purely in Castilian. In 1462, Isa de Jabir published the Suma de los
Principales Mandamientos (Summary of the Principle
Commandments). It was written for a Muslim population that
did not speak Arabic any more.
 Isidore of
Seville (circa 560-636) - Christian
Eminent bishop of Seville. During the height of Visigothic
rule, he played a key role in stamping out Arianism. His
most influential work is the Etymologies. This encyclopedia summarizes all of the
knowledge of the time. It also preserves portions of
Greco-Roman classical writings. In addition, he wrote a
valuable history of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi who had
ruled Spain, as well as treatises on theology, language,
natural history, and other subjects. He was canonized as a
saint in 1598.
Jimenez de Cisneros
(1436-1517) - Christian
 A Spanish Cardinal and royal official in Spain. Born into a
humble household, he ascended the heights of power as a
religious reformer, regent of the Spanish throne, Grand
Inquisitor, and Crusader in North Africa.
As ambitious as he was, he often lived as an ascetic. He was
known for his strictness and rigidity. He lived during the
time of Spanish unification and the dynamic rule of
Ferdinand and Isabella and their royal successors.
Cisneros is known for having forcibly converted many Muslims
of Granada and burning Arabic manuscripts in his zeal. He is
also known for funding charities and educational
institutions, as well as reforming Spanish clerical orders.
He died just as he was preparing to receive Charles V into
Spain and serve as regent to the 16-year-old monarch.
Historians speculate that he may have been poisoned.
Judah Ha-Levi (c.1075-1141) - Jewish
Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet born in Tudela, Spain.
He was trained as a physician.
Ha-Levi is sometimes called the “Sweet Singer of Zion” for
his poetry based on the theme and sacred language of the
Torah, or the Old Testament in Hebrew. He was well versed in
the traditions of Arabic poetry, its themes and structures,
and with the Greco-Arabic philosophy.
His poetry is still prized for its wit and turns of phrase.
It also is noted for the way in which he introduced a lively
and fluid style to the Hebrew language. It, thus,
contributed to its literature as a living -- not merely a
scriptural -- language. He lived as an honored physician and
celebrated poet in Toledo and Córdoba.
Later, he felt an urge to travel to the Holy Land. He
visited Egypt, where friends urged him to stay. However, he
set out for the Holy Land and died either soon after
reaching there or right before he arrived. His death became
a matter of legend.
Mancebo de Arevalo
(died 1550) - Morisco (or crypto-Muslim)
Scholar whose writings document the deprivations of life
after the Christians' conquest of Islamic Spain. This
literature has been called aljamiado.
These writings focus mainly on the attempt to pass on
Islamic knowledge and heritage under the repressive
conditions of forced conversions and the early Spanish
Inquisition.
De Arevalo was from the Castilian Arevalo near Madrid. His name means “young man of Arevalo.” He was forced to pretend
to be a convert to Christianity. He did so by indicating
that his mother had been a Christian for 25 years.
He traveled extensively around Spain to such places as
Alcantara, Astorga, Saragossa, Gandia, Granada, and Segovia.
On his travels, he visited with other Morisco, or
crypto-Muslim, notables; gathered knowledge; and collected
the teachings of his now-forbidden religion.
He transcribed documents and texts he discovered to preserve
and pass them on. He recounts people's memories of Nasnd
times and of the Christian conquest of Granada.
Little is known about him. However, it is thought that he
must have traveled during the end of the 15th century, up to
the time of Ferdinand’s death, as pressure on Muslims was
increasing.
The information he collected was written down in three
works. The first, El brebe compendio de nuestra santa ley y sunna (The
Brief Compendium of Our Holy Law and Sunnah), represents
the work of a group of Muslim notables at Aragon, including
the alfaqui Bray de Reminjo. Today, it sits
in the Cambridge University Library.
The other two, Tafsira and Sumano de la relacion
y ejerctcio espintual (Summary of the Account and
Spiritual Exercise) also exist in libraries today.
Mancebo is thought to have been arrested by the Inquisition
and killed, as he was preparing to depart on the pilgrimage
to Mecca.
Maslama al-Majriti (died 1007)
- Muslim
A leading mathematician and
astronomer from the frontier town of Madrid (al-Majra) in
central Spain. At the Umayyad court of al-Hakam II, he
produced an improved translation of Ptolemy’s astronomical
work Almagest. He circulated
al-Khwarizmi’s astronomical tables (zij). He
also demonstrated the use of algebra for business
transactions and taxation. And, he introduced techniques of
surveying and triangulation.
Joannes Hispalensis later translated his treatise on the
astrolabe into Latin. Al-Majriti most likely authored an
important compendium on chemistry, called the Rutbat al-Hakeem (The Footsteps of the Sage).
Michael
the Scot (flourished in 1240) - Christian
A northern Christian scholar. He was one of several scholars
who went to Spain after 1085. These scholars set out to gain
knowledge and translate the Arabic works. They found these
works in libraries of locations that had just passed under
Christian domination, primarily Toledo.
There is not much known about these individuals and their
work. However, they provided Europeans with their very first
exposure to the advanced sciences and philosophy in the
Arabic-speaking tradition. They translated using Castilian,
Hebrew, or sometimes both.
Michael the Scot is known for his translation of works by
Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Ibn Sina (Avecinna). His other
translations -- which were not always clear or accurate --
concerned medicine, mathematics, metaphysics, and
philosophy.
Moses Maimonides (1135-1204)
- Jewish
 A rabbi, physician, and
philosopher born in Córdoba. Named Moshe ben Maimon in
Hebrew, he studied the Torah and received a traditional
education. He lived in Spain, Morocco, and Egypt during the
latter period of Muslim rule in Al-Andalus. This waning
period was often called the "golden age" of Jewish culture
in Spain.
When the Almohad rulers conquered Córdoba in 1148,
Maimonides left the city for other parts of Spain, like many
other elite and well connected Muslims and Jews. He finally
ended up in North Africa, where he studied medicine at Fez.
He also began writing at that time and produced his
commentary on the Mishnah.
Maimonides left Morocco and visited the Holy Land, settling
in Egypt. He was considered a great physician. While in
Egypt, he became court physician to the vizier, al-Fadhil, and to Sultan Salahuddin. He also
completed most of his writings in Egypt. What's more, he
served as the leader (nagid) of The Egyptian
Jewish community.
 Maimonides died in Fustat (Cairo). He was buried in the Holy Land
city of Tiberius. His son, Avraham, took up his mantle as a
scholar and physician. Avraham also succeeded him as nagid.
The family held this office for four consecutive
generations.
Among Maimonides’ important works are Jewish scholarship and
medical texts. Most of these were written in Arabic, except
for the Mishneh Torah.
One of his famous philosophical works is The Guide for the Perplexed. Like Ibn
Rushd’s work, it was an effort to bring together Aristotle’s
philosophy and theology, and provide a religious worldview
through Jewish lenses.
He brought the Jewish philosophical tradition to its height.
He incorporated ideas from the Islamic tradition of al-Farabi
and Ibn Sina, to harmonize Aristotle with the Old Testament.
In his time, Maimonides' works on Jewish law and ethics were
opposed, but have since been recognized as foundational to
Jewish thought.
Muhammad V (1338-1391) -
Muslim
King of Granada of the Nasrid
Dynasty. He came to power in 1354 CE, after the
assassination of his father, Abu Hallaj Yusuf. In 1359, he
lost the throne in a palace revolution. Ismail succeeded
him. Then, he returned to power in 1362, after overthrowing
Ismail’s successor, Abu Said. He died in 1362. His son, Abu
Hallaj Yusuf II, succeeded him.
Muhammad
ibn Abbad Al-Mu'tamid (1040-1095) - Muslim
Ruler of Seville upon the caliphate's collapse in Córdoba.
He was the third and final ruler of the Abbadid Dynasty in
Spain. He reigned from 1069-1091. Al-Mu'tamid served as a
judge (qadi) before ruling Seville. He gained
renown as a poet-king. Styling himself as ruler of the crown
of taifa states, Al-Mu'tamid sought to reproduce the famed
splendor of Madinat al-Zahra in his court at the Alcazar. He
patronized scholars, poets, and artisans, and held lively
salons that continued to propagate high Andalusian culture.
However, his rivalries with other petty kings exhausted his
military strength and financial resources. Ultimately, it
forced him to pay tribute to Alfonso VI of Castile and tax
his subjects heavily. Ibn Abbad turned for assistance to
Yusuf ibn Tashufin, a Amazigh (Berber) and the Almoravid ruler of
North Africa. The Berbers' arrival restored unity to Al-Andalus.
But, by that time, Al-Mu'tamid was exiled and impoverished.
Muhammad ibn Nasr (died 1273) - Muslim
King of Granada from 1235 CE and founder of the Nasrid
Dynasty. The Nasrids ruled the Kingdom of Granada from 1238,
until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered it in 1492. They were
the last Muslim dynasty on the Iberian Peninsula.
The Nasrids originated the most monumental, sophisticated
and lavish period within Spanish Islamic art. As a result,
Granada became the artistic center of North Africa and the
Iberian Christian kingdoms. The best example of Nasrid art
is the royal residence of the Alhambra.
Muhammad ibn Rushd (c.1126-1198) - Muslim
A philosopher and physician, who was well-versed in
theology, Islamic law, mathematics, and medicine. Ibn Rushd
is known as Averroes in Latin. He was born in Cordova,
Spain, to a family of jurists and public servants.
His grandfather was Abdul-Walid Muhammad (d. 1126), the
chief judge of Cordova under the Almoravid Dynasty. Ibn
Rushd's father, Abdul-Qasim Ahmad, held the same position
until the Almoravid Dynasty was replaced by the Almohad
Dynasty in 1146.
Ibn Rushd received a traditional education in Islamic
disciplines. He also studied medicine under the famous
physician Abu Jafar ibn Harun of Trujillo. He may have
studied under Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), as well.
 Ibn Rushd wrote an important study of medicine Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb (Book of Generalities of
Medicine). This work became one of the major medical books
for Jewish, Christian, and Muslim colleges for centuries
afterwards.
Ibn Rushd maintained a relationship with the Almohad
Dynasty. Its reform efforts may have influenced his work in
reconciling philosophy and religion.
While at Marrakesh, he met physician and philosopher Ibn
Tufayl (Abubacer in Latin), who served as physician and
counselor to Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf. Ibn Rushd was appointed
chief judge and later as chief physician. His relationship
with the ruler commissioned Ibn Rushd to write his
commentaries on Aristotle.
 Although he was influential with the Almohads, factions
around the government repudiated Ibn Rushd’s writings. He
was exiled in 1195. His writings were banned and his books
burned. Two years later, Ibn Rushd returned to Córdoba with
his reputation restored. However, he died the next year.
Interest in his writings faded among Muslims. Yet, in the
1200s, his commentaries and original philosophical work, Tahafut al-tahafut (The Incoherence of the
Incoherence), were translated into Hebrew and Latin. In Tahafut al-tahafut, he defended
Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali's Tahafut al-falasifa
(The Incoherence
of the Philosophers).
The transfer of these translations beyond Spain awakened
philosophy in Europe. And, Averroism became influential
intellectually. Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon widely quoted
Ibn Rushd’s work. They, along with other prominent figures,
worked to reconcile faith and reason. They also established
scientific inquiry on a sound religious and intellectual
foundation.
Muhammad ibn Tumart
(c.1080-1130) - Muslim
Leader of the
Almohad movement (Muwahhidun). He was
born around 1080 in Morocco of Amazigh (Berber) ancestry. He acquired
a reputation for personal piety and charisma as a preacher.
He also was known for controversial positions in debates.
His opinions led the Almoravid rulers to perceive him as a
political threat.
Refusing arrest, he soon after declared himself Mahdi, or "The Guided One." Thus, he became associated
with the rise of the Almohads in North Africa. He died after
a battle in 1130 CE. His death was concealed long enough for
Abd al-Mu’min to be proclaimed Almohad leader.
Muhyi al-Din ibn al-Arabi (1164-1240) - Muslim
 One of the founding writers and practitioners of Sufism. He
was born at Murcia in Al-Andalus. He lived in Seville.
There, he was educated and served as secretary to several
governors.
He traveled to various cities in Spain and North Africa,
including Córdoba and Tunis. He studied with various
teachers (including women). He also performed the Hajj, or pilgrimage. He stayed there for two years of
spiritual discovery. Later, he lived in Damascus and
elsewhere in the eastern Muslim lands.
Ibn al-Arabi wrote more than any other Sufi scholar,
producing as many as 400 works. Scholars have not yet
completely studied his work, due to the large quantity of
works and dispersal of manuscripts.
He wrote about attaining unity with God through a spiritual
journey in stages. He also emphasized the importance of
faith and attainment of pine knowledge. Meanwhile, he
placed less stress on human reason as a way to attain true
knowledge and union with God.
Paulus
Alvarus (flourished in 860) - Christian
A colleague of the theologian Eulogius. A staunch supporter
of Christian martyrs in Córdoba in the mid-9th century.
Though basilicas and monasteries remained open, the
Christian population was gradually becoming assimilated to
Arab culture and Islam. He famously noted that Christians
preferred to study and master Arabic, rather than Latin.
 He
also expressed unease about the cultural shift taking place
in southern Spain.
Pedro I (1334-1369) - Christian
King of Castile from 1350 to 1369. He was the son of
Alfonso XI and Maria of Portugal. He was the last ruler of the main branch of
the House of Burgundy. He was sometimes known as “Pedro
the Cruel.” He earned a reputation for monstrous cruelty by
committing a series of murders, waging constant wars,
igniting palace intrigues, and being unfaithful to his word.
His reign ended with his murder, following the loss of a
battle against his brother Henry’s forces.
Pelayo (690-737) - Christian
 Some
historians believe he was a Visigothic nobleman, who served as the
sword bearer for King Witiza and a bodyguard for King Roderic. However,
it is also possible that he was a local Asturian strong man.
In 713, he
fled north to the Asturias. There, he founded a small
kingdom that thwarted Muslim expansion in the region. His
resistance is often cited as the beginning of the Reconquista. However, no unified or organized plan to
counter the Muslim presence existed until many centuries
later.
Qadi Iyad (died 1149) - Muslim
Celebrated Maliki scholar, who served the Almoravid Dynasty
as a judge. His family was of Yemeni origin. His ancestors
achieved fame for their knowledge of the Quran. As a result,
they became notables in the West. Iyad set out to Al-Andalus
for study. Later, he served as qadi of Granada
and of Ceuta. He also was author of a work, Ash-Shifa, in praise of Prophet Muhammad, which plays a
role in popular piety. What's more, he wrote a juristic work
recognized as a strong defense of the Maliki school of law.
Raymond Llull (1232-1315) - Christian
A
Catalan author, mystic, and missionary, born at Palma de
Majorca. He led an ordinary life until he had a vision of
Christ. Then, he decided to devote his life to missionary
work by joining the Franciscan order.
Lull studied Arabic to work at converting Muslims. He was
instrumental in founding a Franciscan monastery at Miramar.
There, he taught Arabic and philosophy for a decade and
wrote some controversial treatises.
He traveled to various cities, where his work was considered
eccentric at best. He also worked to gain support for the
teaching of Arabic and other oriental languages to help with
evangelism among the Muslims.
To achieve this end, Lull developed methods that attempted
to use logical means to reduce knowledge and logic into
basic principles. He used one such method to list attributes
of God in Christianity. He knew that believers in all three
monotheistic religions -- Christians, Jews and Muslims --
would agree with the listed attributes. Thus, it gave him a
solid platform on which to argue, in an attempt to convert
others to Christianity.
He also tried to refute the Latin Averroists, who were
becoming very influential in Europe, especially in Paris. He
wrote many prominent works, Yet, he is best known as a
prominent Christian apologist and missionary to the Arabs.
Raymundo (died 1151) - Christian
Archbishop officiated in 1125, who founded the translation
center in Toledo, under Alfonso VII of Leon. Toledo was
chosen as the principal see of the Roman Church in Spain,
after its capture in 1085. The city became a center for
translation of Arabic texts on science and philosophy into
Latin. Raymundo may have expanded translation efforts after
meeting with Peter the Venerable (1094-1156), abbot of the
Benedictine monastery of Cluny, who visited Spain in 1142.
Recarred (died 601) - Christian
Visigothic king who distinguished himself in warfare with
the Franks and Basques. He converted from Arianism to Roman
Catholicism at the Council of Toledo in 589. His conversion
led to the unification of the Visigothic nobles and the
Hispani-Roman population of Spain into a common religion.
Spanish Jews, however, began to be persecuted during his
reign, under an early form of the Visigothic Code.
Recemundus (flourished in 973) - Christian
Mozarabic bishop of Elvira and secretary of the caliph of
Córdoba in the mid-10th century. He was called Rabi ibn Zayd
in Arabic. In 953, he served as ambassador for Abd al-Rahman
III to the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto I of Germany,
normalizing relations between the two rulers. He also led an
embassy to the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople and to
Jerusalem. In 961, he presented an impressive Arabic almanac
of agricultural information to the new caliph al-Hakam II.
The almanac explained such topics as times for planting,
harvests, actions against destructive insects, soil use and
irrigation. This work, commonly known as The Calendar of Córdoba, also included a
list of Christian holidays. Some of these commemorated the
martyrs of Córdoba.
Roderic (died 711) -
Christian
A Visigothic duke, who became
king in 709 CE. He and his large but exhausted army were
defeated at the Battle of Guadalete. This critical turning
point enabled Muslim forces to conquer Iberia over the
following decade. Roderic’s body was never recovered after
the battle.
Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar (circa
1044-1099) - Christian
Alférez or General to King Sancho II of Castile. The term derives
from al-faris, which is Arabic for
horseman. He was nicknamed El Cid, which derives from al-sayyid,
or Arabic for “nobleman” or “lord.” The soldiers of al-Mu'tamid of
Seville honered him with this title after he led them to victory over
the taifa king of Granada's army. He also helped Sancho II defeat King
Garcia of Galicia and King Alfonso VI of Leon.
Rodrigo later became a vassal of Alfonso VI, but fell into
disfavor and was exiled. He then entered the service of the
Muslim king of Zaragoza (1081-1085). There, he defeated
Muslim and Christian foes alike.
Then, Yusuf ibn-Tashufin's Almoravid army defeated Alfonso
at Zalaqa in 1086. He took Rodrigo back into his service.
Rodrigo became the “protector” of al-Qadir, the former
Muslim king of Toledo who was installed by Alfonso in
Valencia.
Rodrigo took the city as his own in 1094. When he died in
1099, his wife Jimena held the city for three more years
before returning it to Alfonso.
El Cid’s legend as a Campeador, or
"champion defender of Christianity," grew over the
centuries. Epic poems, such as the Cantar de Mio Cid,
preserved the memory of Rodrigo. Numerous anonymous short
poems embellished the story with new literary episodes.
Roger II of Sicily (1095-1154) - Christian
 Son of Roger I and king of Sicily, who succeeded his brother
Simon. In 1117, Roger II married Elvira, daughter of Alfonso
VI of Castile.
Roger II supported Antipope Anacletus II against Innocent
II, as claimant to the papal throne. As a reward, Anacletus
issued a papal bull on September 27, 1130, declaring Roger
as king of Sicily, He was crowned in Palermo on Christmas
Day in 1130. Innocent II's loyal supporter, Bernard of
Clairvaux, built up a coalition against Anacletus and Roger
II. The result was a 10-year war. Then, later in his reign,
Roger II revived attacks against the Byzantine Empire.
Roger II rose to become one of Europe's greatest kings. He
is distinguished to have united all the Norman conquests
into one kingdom. He is also noted for granting them a
scientific, personal, and centralized government.
What's more, Roger II practiced tolerance of differing races
and cultures. He welcomed learned men of these races and
cultures into his court. They included Arab geographer
Idrisi and the Greek historian Nilus Doxopatrius. He also
hired many Greeks and Arabs trained in centralized
government traditions.
Samuel Ha-Nagid
(993-1056) - Jewish
A Talmudic scholar,
poet, rabbi, statesman, and general. He is also known as
Samuel ibn Naghrela. He was born in Córdoba. He lived there
until the sack of the Umayyad capital. After that, he
migrated to Malaga, part of the province of Granada. He was
appointed vizier in 1027 CE. He went on to become a
successful military leader and statesman. As a result, he
earned the title of nagid, or "prince," among
members of the Jewish community. He was known for fine
living and poetry in the best Andalusian tradition. He wrote
with great eloquence about life, death, and suffering, as
well as about war.
Solomon ibn Gabirol
(1021-1058) - Jewish
An Andalusi Hebrew
poet and Jewish philosopher. He was born in Má¡laga. He came
to be recognized as a great poetic talent after composing a
moving elegy after the death of Hai Gaon. He was the chief
rabbi in Baghdad.
During the tumultuous taifa period, Ibn Gabirol wandered
from town to town. He eventually came under the tutelage of
Samuel Ha-Nagid, before a falling out.
Ibn Gabirol wrote a work arranged in verses of 400 lines --
like Arabic counterparts -- to teach Hebrew grammar. He
wrote numerous piyyutim, or liturgical
poems. He also wrote the treatise, On the Improvement of the Moral
Qualities.
Ibn Gabirol reconciled Greco-Arabic Neoplatonic ideas with
Jewish theology. His best-known work was Fons
Vitae (The Fountain of
Life). This work had considerable influence on the
scholasticism of Medieval Christianity,
 after its
translation from Arabic into Latin in 1150.
Tariq ibn Ziyad (died 720) - Muslim
Amazigh (Berber) commander of the Muslim forces that conquered Spain
in 711. He defeated Visigothic King Roderic at the Battle of
Guadalete. Ibn Ziyad's army crossed the straits from North
Africa. They landed near a large mountainous outcropping on
the Spanish coast. It later was named Jabal
Tariq (Tariq's mountain) in his honor. Today, it is known
as Gibraltar.
Theodomir (died 743) -
Christian
The count of Orihuela in
southeastern Iberia. According to a treaty, he agreed to
recognize the Umayyad governor, Abd al-Aziz, as overlord. He
also had to pay an annual tribute (jizya). It
consisted of one dinar, wheat, olive oil, honey, and other
items on behalf of each person in his province. He
maintained his lands. Meanwhile, the inhabitants were free
to continue their lifestyle and practice their faith, as
they did before the Muslim conquest. What's more, his descendants converted to Islam.
Tomá¡s de Torquemada (1420-1498) - Christian
A Dominican friar born in 1420 in Castile-Leon. He rose to a
trusted position at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. He
became the first Grand Inquisitor of Spain, and confessor to
Queen Isabella herself. He is best known for his ruthless
prosecution in the Spanish Inquisition. The inquisition held
everyone above their early teens subject to inquiry for
their beliefs and actions in the faith. He is widely
remembered for burning Arabic and Hebrew books; for
persecuting the Jews and Muslims of Spain after the conquest
of Granada, when promises of tolerance were broken, mass
forced conversions took place, and finally, the Jews of
Spain were expelled.
Umar ibn Hafsun
(circa 840-917) - Muslim/Christian
Leader of anti-Umayyad Dynasty rebel forces in southern
Spain. He was a muwallad in his youth. He
joined a group of brigands and caused trouble for local
Umayyad governors. In 883, he became a leader of rebels
based at the castle of Bobastro near Ronda. This move
expanded his control over nearby lands.
He initially gained support by rallying disaffected muwallads to his cause. However, when he
renounced belief in Islam, many of his followers abandoned
him. The Umayyad ruler, Abd-ar-Rahman III, began annual
offensives against him. He eventually conquered Ibn Hafsun’s
fortress and ended the rebellion.
Wallada
bint Mustakfi (circa 1001-1091) - Muslim
The daughter of al-Mustakfi, one of the last Umayyad
caliphs. Her mother may have been an Ethiopian Christian
slave. Despite the end of Umayyad rule in 1031, Walladah had
inherited wealth and lived on her own in Córdoba. She opened
a salon for poets and writers. She began a love affair with
Ibn Zaydun, a talented Arab poet. Her own poetic verse
reflects self-confidence and an indomitable spirit. She is
considered a symbol of the open and cosmopolitan nature of
Andalusi society.
Yusuf ibn Tashufin
(circa 1006-1106) - Muslim
Almoravid amir and second ruler of the Tashufunid
Dynasty. This dynasty ruled over a large part of North
Africa and southern Spain from 1106 to 1143. He took the
title of amir al-muslimin ("commander of the Muslims"). His rule followed the reign of
Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar, founder of the Almoravid Dynasty.
Ibn Tashufin is the founder of the famous Moroccan city,
Marrakech. He chose its location and made it his capital
city. The city's construction marked the beginning of a
sedentary ruling life for this desert dynasty.
In 1085, Christian King Alfonso VI of Castile made advances
toward three petty Muslim kingdoms. The three rulers called
on ibn Tashufin twice to help counter incursions of the
Christian armies. The first time, he promised to return to
Marrakech. However, the second time, he united all of the
Muslim kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula under the Kingdom
of Morocco around 1090. This move signaled Al-Andalus'
inclusion into the Amazigh (Berber) Almoravid Empire.
Ziryab (circa 789-857) - Muslim
 A
gifted musician and poet at the Abbasid court in Baghdad. His name means
“blackbird.” When his skills appeared to
surpass those of his teacher, he was forced to leave and
journeyed to Córdoba to join the court of Abd al-Rahman II,
great grandson of the founder of the Spanish Umayyad
Dynasty.
He established a school of music. He made refinements to
instruments such as adding a fifth string to the lute (ud),
the predecessor of the modern guitar. He introduced Persian
customs to Al-Andalus, and was an arbiter of food, fashion,
and style. For example, he recommended that people should
adopt seasonal attire, and men should cut and part their
hair to be considered well-groomed. He also introduced our
practice of eating meals in courses, beginning with
appetizers and ending with dessert.
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