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Calligraphy
 Calligraphy, from Greek language, means the art of beautiful
writing. Before printing, writing was done by pressing lines
into clay, carving a hard surface like stone, or tracing
lines with ink on surfaces such as papyrus, leather,
parchment (beaten, stretched sheepskin), or paper. Paper --
a Chinese invention made of wood or plant pulp, cotton fiber
or recycled rags -- entered Muslim culture with the spread
of Islam into Central Asia during the seventh and eighth
centuries.
Paper
played a major role in the spread of literacy and the
culture of the book, and in the expansion of the Arabic
language as the medium of Islamic culture and learning.
Paper is lighter and much less expensive than parchment,
lasts much longer than papyrus, and accepts all kinds of
ink, colored pigments and finishes to make it smooth or
rough. As a result of these qualities, literacy and
libraries expanded very quickly in Muslim lands.
 The art
of beautiful writing in Arabic—first used to honor the words
of Islam’s holy book, the Qur’an -- became the highest art
form. Figurative art, in contrast, which involved drawing
people and animals, was never associated with religious
literature and arts, and it was limited to secular, or
worldly, works of art and literature. For example, medical
books were illustrated with human figures for a purpose.
Stories were illustrated, but until later centuries, stories
from the Qur’an and the prophets were not. In the decoration
of houses of Islamic worship -- the
masjid, or
mosque -- figurative drawing was very rare. Images of
flowers and plants, geometric and mathematical designs were
instead interwoven with the words of the Qur’an.
Over
time, various styles of Arabic calligraphy developed.
Square, angular Kufic script was one of the early forms.
Other, more flowing, rounded forms developed with time. One
major change from the earliest Arabic scripts was the effort
to make it easy for non-Arabs to read accurately. That was
an important factor in preserving the Qur’an. A system of
dots or points was added to the letter shapes to distinguish
them clearly from one another, and a set of vowel marks and
other symbols was added to signify how the word should be
pronounced. Both of these added features were incorporated
into the forms of calligraphy in harmonious and well
proportioned ways.
 Calligraphers working in Al-Andalus and parts of North and
later West Africa developed a distinctive style of Arabic
calligraphy. An example of the round, flowing Andalusi
script is shown at left, with a heading of gold Kufic, or
angular script at the top of the page. This style is also
found in many libraries of West Africa such as Timbuktu,
where today, efforts are being made to preserve hundreds or
thousands of beautiful examples of this script and entire
books.
Arabic
calligraphy also served the interest of building libraries
in Al-Andalus, which contained collections that reproduced
the knowledge gathered together in Muslim lands over the
centuries. Rulers of cities like Córdoba, Seville, and
Toledo patronized libraries that held thousands of books --
all hand written -- and employed staffs of calligraphers to
make copies and embellish works in Arabic. It is known that
there were women in Al-Andalus working both in decorative
calligraphy and as copyists of books, and that wealthy
patrons of libraries and private collections included
educated women in cities such as Córdoba, Seville, and
Granada.
Among
the known women scholars of Spain recorded during the 11th
century CE were names such as Ayisha bint Ahmad, Radiyah,
Khadijah bint Ja’far, Labna and Fatimah. Radiyah (died 1032
CE) was the wife of Labib, a noble at the Córdoban court.
Women of less wealthy families were actually employed as
copyists, and historian Ibn al-Fayyad reported that 170
women were engaged as copyists in only one section of
Córdoba alone. Books of poetry, astronomy, philosophy,
mathematics, agriculture, and medicine were decorated with
illustrations and written out in an efficient, well defined
script.
 Calligraphy was also a major decorative feature in other art
forms. It appeared on ceramic vessels, carved wooden and
ivory boxes, leather-covered objects with gilt stamping in
gold, woven into
tiraz
borders on textiles, inlaid or engraved on metalwork and
scientific instruments, and stamped onto coins. (See
Carving)
 Architecture in Al-Andalus was richly decorated with
calligraphy. Not only the interior of mosques, but also the
walls and niches of palaces, were embellished with
calligraphy. In the mosque, or
masjid (in
Arabic, meaning “place of bowing down in prayer”), walls,
domes, doorways and arches, as well as bands around the
perimeter, or on a minaret (tower for the call to prayer)
were architectural elements that made places for elegant
displays of Qur’anic verses. Repetition of a name of God
might be incorporated into brickwork, or combined with
curving arabesques or plant forms. Geometric designs were
usually alternated with bands of calligraphy. The forms of
Arabic lettering in Al-Andalus were distinctive for their
use of simple, angular Kufic such as the mosaic lettering
done in golden glass tesserae in the Mosque of Córdoba
below, and a flowing Andalusi style with dramatic curves,
shown in the plasterwork of the Nasrid period, at left.
 Further
Reading:
Muhammad Sakkal. “The Art of Arabic Calligraphy,” Sakkal
Design, at
http://sakkal.com/ArtArabicCalligraphy.html
S. M.
Imamuddin. Arabic Writing and Arab Libraries. TaHa
Publishers. London, 1983.
Images:
Page
from an illuminated Qur’an in Andalusi script retrieved at
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/AndalusQuran.JPG
Qur'an
manuscript, 13th-14th century; Nasrid period (1232-1492),
attributed to Spain, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
retrieved at
http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_Of_Art/viewOnezoom.asp?dep=14&zoomFlag=0&viewmode=0&item=42%2E63
Muhammad Sakkal. Diagram for determining the proper height
and proportion of Arabic letters. “The Art of Arabic
Calligraphy.” Sakkal Design, retrieved at
http://sakkal.com/ArtArabicCalligraphy.html
Wijdan
Ali. “Islamic Coins during the Umayyad, Abbasid, Andalusian,
and Fatimid Dynasties.” Foundation for Science Technology
and Civilization, 2004. At
http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?TaxonomyTypeID=109&TaxonomySubTypeID=-1&TaxonomyThirdLevelID=-1&ArticleID=392
Detail
of the plasterwork with calligraphy and arabesques on the
Patio de los Arrayanes (Patio of the Myrtles) in the
Alhambra, Granada, Nasrid period. Retrieved at
http://www.quovadimus.org/spain99/alhambra/2-400.html
Detail
from the mihrab (prayer niche) in the Mosque of Córdoba,
mosaic with gold glass tesserae. “Andalusian Images.”
Colgate University, retrieved at
http://classes.colgate.edu/osafi/images/andalusian_images.htm
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